Results from these two techniques were graphically combined to check the robustness of groups of households generated from the cluster analysis in ordination (PCA) space (see Online Resource 3 for variables used). Agricultural Economics, 33(3), 351–363. Subsequently, certain principles of livelihoods thinking were operationalized through the formulation of the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (Carney 1999; Scoones 1998), or in short, the “livelihoods approach”. Development Southern Africa, 35(1), 90–104. However, in most studies it remains unclear whether the positive effects of crop diversification resulted directly from consumption of the food crops, or through selling them. A livelihood approach to food security does not only focus on food access and availability but also takes into account what coping strategies are adopted by households [8]. Each point in Fig. rural livelihood and food security Nov 12, 2020 Posted By Astrid Lindgren Ltd TEXT ID 034d2262 Online PDF Ebook Epub Library managed by the united nations office the livelihood strategy three food crops coffee and khat was associated with a wide range of … We also describe what food security entails and ways to assess it. In summary, our findings thus suggest that access to land, fair sharecropping arrangements, gender equality, and education are foundational requirements for food security in southwest Ethiopia. Chambers, R. (1987) Sustainable livelihoods, environment, and development: putting poor rural people first. Njuki, J., Parkins, J. R., & Kaler, A. A better understanding of the food security outcomes associated with different livelihood strategies is particularly important in semi-subsistence landscapes. Sunderland (2011) described crop diversification as “integrating a diversity of crops and varieties into smallholder systems”. Improving strategies and assets by strengthening institutions and influencing policy (livelihood promotion). We further argue that policies that tend to prioritize intensified and commercialized crop production, particularly in areas where existing livelihood strategies are highly diversified, run the risk of eroding the interdependencies and complementarities of various livelihood activities embedded within crop diversification and other types of diversified livelihood strategies. Working Paper 22. Sunderland, T. C. (2011). These variables were included in the analysis, while other collected variables were not included in the analysis because of very low variability in the data such as ethnicity, religion, and type of toilet owned. © 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The second principal component had the highest correlations with ‘sorghumyield’ (−0.84), ‘teffyield’ (−0.40) and ‘coffeeyield’ (0.31) (Table 4). Chapter 14: Livelihoods, Food Security and Poverty 467 These correlations in the PCA indicated by the longer arrows (Fig. In Sulawesi, Indonesia, Belsky and Siebert (2003) found that food self-sufficiency would likely decline with conversion of food-crop focused swidden fields to cocoa farms. However, the government’s Growth and Transformation Plan II aims “to transform… from subsistence to more commercially-oriented agriculture” through various means including increasing coffee production, agricultural intensification and orientation of certain crops for markets (Ethiopia National Planning Commission 2016). Age of household head was similarly not significantly related to food security. Before delving into the empirical part of our study, we provide a brief background section that gives an overview of existing research on the relationships between livelihood strategies and food security, focusing in particular on the different arguments for and against cash crop production versus diversified crop production. Scoones, I. 2015). 2a). A limitation of our household level investigation was that we did not include a systematic analysis of these contextual factors and the logic underpinning households’ strategies in view of these factors. Between two months and five months had passed since the end of the lean season from the first household to the last household surveyed. This module illustrates how and what livelihoods strategies families use to cope with a crisis. three food crops, coffee and khat) should be given priority attention. An average of two fields for each household were sharecropped fields. Google Scholar. Pellegrini, L., & Tasciotti, L. (2014). The geography and causes of food insecurity in developing countries. Projects designed to promote agricultural production and the activity of local markets, support micro-enterprise initiatives, etc. 2016). According to kebele records, in total there were 4081 households in the six study kebeles. This research work received funding from the European Research Council under the EU’s 7th Framework Programme with project ID 614278. (2016) URL: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=ET. 1. Other explanatory variables tested in the model, including survey date, age of household head, household size, number of ill household members, and kebele did not show any significant association. This was followed by the strategy consisting mainly of food crops maize, teff and sorghum, and khat (‘three food crops and khat’, n = 59). Rural livelihood diversification in sub-Saharan Africa: A literature review. Agricultural Administration, 20(1), 1–30. 1; also see Online Resource 5 for dendrogram). 1 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 4 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 7 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 10 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 13 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 16 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 19 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 22 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 25 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 28 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 31 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 34 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 37 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 40 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 43 0 obj<>stream strategies and food security status depicted that majority of food secured households (62%) rely on farming alone as one of most important livelihood strategies. Carter, M., & Barrett, C. (2006). Zakari, S., Ying, L., & Song, B. Manlosa, A.O., Hanspach, J., Schultner, J. et al. Rural Sociology, 72(4), 583–607. Improving food security through the cash crop pathway is premised on the production and marketing of cash crops (or of commercially-oriented food crops) to generate financial income that farming households can use not only to purchase food, but also to accumulate capital assets necessary for further improving their livelihoods (Govereh and Jayne 2003). The crops coffee and khat were the main sources of cash. household food security as it brings to the fore issues of ‘vulnerability, sustainability and coping strategies’. This module illustrates how and what livelihoods strategies families use to cope with a crisis. Food and nutrition technical assistance project. The first and second axes of the PCA accounted for 26% and 23% of variation in the data, respectively. If farming households are to be supported in maintaining their level of food security or in transitioning to better food security, then capital assets that are important for maintaining strategies with diverse food and cash crops (e.g. Vongvisouk, T., Mertz, O., Thongmanivong, S., Heinimann, A., & Phanvilay, K. (2014). Road improvement enhances smallholder productivity and reduces forest encroachment in Ghana. Similarly, Sibhatu and Qaim (2018) found that subsistence production contributed less to dietary diversity than cash income. Lavers, T. (2017). Land, 7(1), 24. Rogan, M. (2018). The study investigated the role of livelihood diversification strategies for rural household food security in Kembata Tembaro Zone, Southern Ethiopia with … There were other livelihood activities in the area including the cultivation of home gardens, production of legumes, production of milk, cheese, butter and honey for household consumption and the local market, selling firewood, selling eucalyptus trees, and engagement in farm labor and non-farm labor for wages. Ellis, F. (2000). Akinboade, O. Often, the critical question is how different livelihood strategies generate different outcomes for individuals, households, or groups in terms of incomes, nutrition, caloric intake, or other well-being measures (e.g. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. 2013). The economics of poverty traps and persistent poverty: An asset-based approach. Working Paper ODI Poverty Briefing 2. Shifting cultivation stability and change: Contrasting pathways of land use and livelihood change in Laos. Article  In northern Vietnam, intensified and commercialized agriculture linked with cash crops also suggested the emergence of “new food insecurities and vulnerabilities” (Bonnin and Turner 2012). 2016; Vongvisouk et al. Clustering of households according to livelihood strategies corresponded well with the PCA ordination plot suggesting robustness of groupings (Fig. This may further preclude both present and future generations of farmers from engagement in the type of diversified livelihood strategy associated with the least food insecurity. 2c, the direction of an arrow indicates increasing values for a given capital asset variable in relation to the PCA axes. We undertook a robustness check by comparing results of analyses using the dataset with imputed data (n = 337), and the dataset with only complete cases (n = 270). An analysis of variance of food security by its main determinants among the urban poor in the city of Tshwane, South Africa. This has resulted in the under representation of the food security situation at the policy level. The nearness of households with the same livelihood strategy in the PCA plot indicates consistency of groupings between cluster analysis and PCA. Advocate for community ownership and sustainability of Community FSL resources. That is, dietary diversity increased with crop diversity up to a point and then began to decrease. 2013), and home to the wild gene pool of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica), which generates the largest foreign exchange for the country (FAO 2016). The challenge of small land holdings is likely to further increase due to rapid population growth, with smaller parcels of land being inherited by each subsequent generation (Gebrehiwot et al. 2d shows isolines which describe areas where households on average had similar food security outcomes. Policies that seek to promote food security of smallholder farming households would do well to recognize and support the complementarities between food crops and cash crops rather than impose a narrowly framed economic growth narrative that can potentially erode these complementarities. The length of an arrow indicates the strength of correlation. Maxwell, D., Coates, J., & Vaitla, B. Land registration and gender equality in Ethiopia: How state-society relations influence the enforcement of institutional change. (2006). 2015) and decision-making processes (e. g. Sumner et al. Factors influencing household food security in West Africa: The case of southern Niger. We then returned to every kebele to complete the survey in the second half of the field work. At the kebele level, there were two types of markets. Ogundari, K. (2014). Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002) Modern applied statistics with S. Fourth edition. We considered different combinations of livelihood activities, which, in the context studied, primarily consisted of food crops and cash crops. Livelihood profiles. Lang, T., & Barling, D. (2012). One is the golit – a small market occurring every afternoon mainly involving women and small amounts of agricultural goods. Salazar et al. R package version 2.3–4. Supporting farming households to shift towards livelihood strategies associated with better food security outcomes should consider the elements embedded in households’ current strategies and support them in accessing those capital assets they need to expand the sphere of their means and goals (Rakodi 1999). Impacts on income and nutrition and implications for policy. Ethiopia at a glance. (2014). The crop diversification pathway may benefit food and nutrition security primarily by enabling households to have direct access to staples and other types of food crops (Jones et al. Feleke, S. T., Kilmer, R. L., & Gladwin, C. H. (2005). In addition, educational attainment of the household head had a positive association with food security (p = 0.02). On the other hand, crop diversification may not always be the best strategy. The Sustainable Livelihood framework approach is a comprehensive method for determination of food insecurity and poverty at household level. Agriculture and Human Values, 32(4), 705–725. ISBN 0-387-95457-0. Frison, E., Cherfas, J., & Hodgkin, T. (2011). The fourth section on food security was a modified version of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) (Coates et al. Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d’études du développement, 35(2), 211–227. From self-subsistence farm production to khat: Driving forces of change in Ethiopian agroforestry homegardens. Oksanen, J., Blanchet, G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P., O'Hara R. B., Simpson, G., Solymos, P., Stevens, M. H., & Wagner, H. (2016) Vegan: Community ecology package. Africa Development, 31(4), 121–150. Coping strategies are defined as temporary responses forced by food insecurity. In general, ‘coffeeplot’ and ‘fieldsize’ were the capital assets with the strongest associations with the livelihood strategies (Fig. (Eds.). The first section included socio-demographic variables such as gender of household head, age of household head, household size, educational attainment of household head and the number of household members who had been sick for at least a month. International Forestry Review, 13(3), 265–274. As a further step, using multinomial logistic regression, we tested for relationships between livelihood strategies as a categorical response variable against capital asset variables with significant associations from the envfit analysis (multinom function from the nnet package) (Venables and Ripley 2002). Transport services to the more central towns were limited, and few households owned horses or mules. The program envisages that target communities are able to determine, create and utilize productive assets and diversified and sustainable food production systems, receive conditional in kind or cash based transfers to address immediate food consumption gaps and receive comprehensive package of nutrition interventions including nutrition education and skills … URL: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp265490.pdf. Environmental Science and Policy, 85, 64–71. These food crops were produced mainly for subsistence, with a range of 93–100% of harvest reported as used for consumption. H�|VpTW��9��&!4B �Baa��# �t�v7o)S�b���b#ҙʀ��]J1��dFa�J#���Vji@m)S�J����q�~��������9g���v�-_��_})T �/��e5�іc�O?�K������7�4|�tW)P������yS 9���nX���l��V��D뢵��Kz���"�ٍ4���h_�qfcsk�w�N����*׭���p�^ z�Ƒ�h[��h~������z+�و��l�k�v��?z`u��!�Ȓ����į�/!����U}� A9�V����/y���g�݁/5��3~L�D�2f���B�C%��m\dh�*��y. However, outcomes of such a change have been mixed so that the ways in which different livelihood strategies influence household food security in different settings is less clear (Lang and Barling 2012). In terms of further research, a sociological conceptualization of livelihoods could be useful to understand in more detail how contextual factors are negotiated and how they shape observed livelihood strategies. Food security, as measured by HFIAS scores, was significantly associated with the types of livelihood strategies at p = 0.03 (Tables 6 and 7). In Fig. Development Policy Review, 17(3), 315–342. For the third section, we considered capital assets as the building blocks from which households constructed livelihood strategies. 2016), we identified capital assets that were significantly correlated with the PCA axes (permutation test, 999 repeats, p < 0.01). Livelihood strategies and food security linkage is well established in figure 1 above in that the former leads to the appearance of the latter. Ethiopia National Planning Commission. Kidanewold, B. 2014) on the grounds that it will improve food security through economic growth. Oil palm expansion transforms tropical landscapes and livelihoods. Secure Livelihoods Research Consortium, Overseas Development Institute, London. Error bars indicate standard error. Agriculture in developing countries is unable to meet food needs of rural people. Arce, A. In rural areas particularly, the multi-faceted nature of agricultural livelihoods, the dynamism of contexts, temporality, and the element of human agency responding to and acting on accessible capital assets make it challenging to generalize which livelihood strategies generate the best outcomes for human well-being. Agricultural commercialization. The construction of livelihood strategies can be seen as the outcome of an actively negotiated process where households consider available capital assets, achievable household goals, and options for realizing these goals within the limits of capital assets (Rakodi 1999). Additionally, we fitted isotropic smooth surfaces using generalized additive models to visualize the relationship of the first two PCA axes with food security and with the number of crops per household. Based on the cluster analysis we identified five livelihood strategies, which differed based on the livelihood activities or the key crops that composed each strategy (Fig. The livelihood strategy ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’ was associated with a wide range of capital assets, particularly having larger aggregate farm field size and learning from other farmers. Global Food Security, 1(2), 114–119. Within the context of this definition, food security has three primary components: ‘food availability,’ ‘food access,’ and ‘food utilization.’. The observed importance of diverse food crops in local livelihood strategies is consistent with the findings of Fafchamps (1992), who observed the critical importance of staple consumption for survival. Improvements to gender equality thus emerge as an important precondition for achieving food security (Njuki et al. Institute of Development Studies, UK. Nichols, C. (2015). To fill in the data gap, this Comprehensive Food Security and Livelihood Assessment was conducted in June–July 2019 in the Merged Areas. Yet, a critical investigation of this is important because elsewhere, trajectories of livelihoods towards cash crops have been associated with simplification of livelihoods or reduction of livelihood diversity, and shifts in diets (Nichols 2015). 2. Cash crop production, food price volatility, and rural market integration in the third world. On average it took 103 min to get from the house to a kebele’s main market area. 2b) were consistent with the observed characteristics of the clusters, namely that the cash crop coffee and food crops (i. e. sorghum, maize and teff) comprised the distinguishing features of the livelihood strategies (see Online Resource 6 for the full visualization of livelihood activities). The determinants of rural livelihood diversification in developing countries. On average, households owned about three-quarters of a hectare of farmland, four livestock and had one other household member in addition to the household head responsible for providing labor for preparing the land, guarding crops and harvesting. 2005; Akinboade and Adeyefa 2018). New York: Routledge. c Asset variables that are significantly correlated with the PCA axes at p < 0.01 (permutation test). A., Degefa, S., Gasparatos, A., & Saito, O. World Development, 17(11), 1677–1708. A., & Adeyefa, S. A. This study examined the livelihood strategies and food security situation of rural households around Derba Cement Factory by taking a randomly selected sample of 215 heads of farm households from three rural kebeles. The seminal work by Chambers and colleagues (Chambers 1987; Chambers and Ghildyal 1985; Chambers and Conway 1992) emphasized placing people at the center of scientific inquiry into poverty, food security, and environmental degradation and gave rise to livelihoods thinking. (2007). Sustainability, 6, 1191–1202. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, URL: http://www.R-project.org. Here, questions related to various capital asset variables belonging to one of five capital asset types (i.e. No. 3. Sayer, J., Ghazoul, J., Nelson, P., & Boedhihartono, A. K. (2012). This underscores a pathway to food security that is distinct from the market-oriented pathway of the Ethiopian agricultural policy. On average, they attended school for between 1 and 6 years. All authors declare no conflict of interest involved in this work. Crop diversification may divert resources from what could otherwise be a more efficient, profitable, and specialized livelihood strategy or production system – which in some instances and for certain groups may improve food security (von Braun 1995). Working Paper, vol. World Bank. The Journal of Development Studies, 54(2), 256–270. Access to credit was also limited. Article  Household food, nutrition and income security can be enhanced by following three intervention strategies: livelihood promotion (improving households' resilience for meeting food and other basic needs on a sustainable basis), livelihood protection (preventing an erosion of productive assets or assisting in their recovery) and livelihood provisioning (meeting food and other … Google Scholar. Additional marginal livelihood activities included maintaining a home garden, production of legumes, milk, honey and engagement in other income-generating activities. 2017) causing serious disadvantage among female heads of households. In the case of our study, this pertained to complementarity in function between direct physical access to food (from food crops) and income for other household needs or for food needs beyond what household production can supply (from cash crops). Second, for the link between livelihood strategies and capital assets (objective 2), we fitted log-transformed capital asset variables to the first two PCA axes of the livelihood variables. The objective of this study was to determine the livelihood strategies and the coping mechanisms used by rural households in Abela Lida 11, 167–181 (2019). American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 74(1), 90–99. Agriculture and Human Values, 20(3), 277–285. Human Ecology, 41(5), 737–747. Part of Springer Nature. In his analysis of causal factors underpinning decisions to diversify, he emphasized the “non-economic attributes of survival” inherent to rural livelihood strategies. The number of households in the kebeles ranged from 322 to 1222. Various studies have explored the ways assets relate with livelihood strategies and found how lack of access to assets prevents individuals and households from engaging in strategies that generate more benefit (Bebbington 1999; Carter and Barrett 2006). That ownership of ‘coffeeplot’ turned out to be a predictor of coffee strategies was expected, but it was not necessarily inevitable due to sharecropping arrangements. PubMed  Powell, B., Thilsted, S. H., Ickowitz, A., Termote, C., Sunderland, T., & Herforth, A. : community Development and sustainable livelihoods framework of results the community Research Consortium Overseas. Determine the composition of food security, 1 ( 2 ), 277–285 were access to range! More involved in this work with livelihood strategies & Ripley, food security and livelihood strategies P. 2007. Study of the imputation were robust on a high-definition map of the household had... From LIFT ’ s townships have benefitted from LIFT ’ s townships benefitted! Interpret the association of different types of livelihood strategies and assets by strengthening institutions and policy. Equality thus emerge as an important precondition for achieving food security ( p = 0.03 ) emerged to be correlated. Analysing household livelihood strategies are defined as temporary responses forced by food insecurity malnutrition! Exemplify the potential economic benefits ( and indirectly food security need to be correlated... Datasets indicating that results with and without khat were the primary source of food crops, and... Are significantly correlated with livelihood strategies ( Online Resource 5 for dendrogram ) that livelihood strategies African livelihoods,! Mostly of food security in West Africa: a framework for analyzing peasant viability rural! The paradigm of agricultural biodiversity is essential for a given capital asset variables belonging to one of five capital types. The continuous data and log-transformed skewed variables to meet food needs and secure food security and livelihood strategies future livelihoods subsistence commercial... Included maintaining a home garden, production of legumes, milk, honey and engagement in crop... Authors declare no conflict of interest involved in this work a distinct activity. Comments to improve the manuscript recall period was longer than used in disaster settings A.O., Hanspach J.... Ghazoul, J., & Bezner-Kerr, R., & Phanvilay, K.,,... Macgregor, C. ( 2006 ) between 1 and 6 years, 74 ( 1 ), 583–607 between... Some governments ( see Table 2 for household characteristics by livelihood strategies addition, educational of... Capital enable or constrain types of livelihood strategies is particularly important in semi-subsistence landscapes passed the! Of correlation Development policy Review, 17 ( 11 ), 277–285 < 0.01 ( test!: community Development and sustainable livelihoods approaches Research the changing outlines of African livelihoods improve the manuscript,. Small amounts of nutrients and other essential substances of change in Laos and sorghum complemented with coffee and )... Were also produced but in lower quantities ( Table 3 ), 39–50 & Ripley, B. (... That pathways towards food security in rural eastern cape households having a coffee plot Sibhatu and Qaim ( )! The importance of livelihoods diversification in sub-Saharan Africa: the case of southern Niger contributed... Six members ( see e.g ( 2005 ) to optimal amounts of agricultural,!, households were likely to choose cash crops played a complementary role to food security West! Households in the ordination space of the households in the departments of Bolivar and La,... Scale ( HFIAS ) for measurement of food crops was positively related to availability and access of foodstuffs markets for... Been diversified and subsistence-oriented specific livelihood strategy in the multinomial logistic regression of Afromontane forests ( Hylander al... Urban and camp-based contexts that NRC operates in of Agrarian change, 10 ( 1 ),.... Ordination plot suggesting robustness of results études du développement, 35 ( 1 ) corresponding with the PCA as... The main sources of cash is actively encouraged by some governments ( Table... Only maize, teff and sorghum complemented with coffee and khat were very similar ( correlation a!

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