In 1821, the war for Greek Independence had finally begun. Get A Copy [109], Towards the summer of 1825, a body of three to four hundred Cretans, who had fought with other Greeks in the Peloponnese, arrived in Crete and revitalized the Cretan insurgency (the so-called "Gramvousa period"). Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 64. Ibrahim sent an envoy to the Maniots demanding that they surrender or else he would ravage their land as he had done to the rest of the Peloponnese. [82] Since the revolution began in March, the Sublime Porte had executed at random various prominent Greeks living in Constantinople, such as the serving Dragoman of the Porte and two retired dragomans, a number of wealthy bankers and merchants, including a member of the ultra-rich Mavrocordatos family, three monks and a priest of the Orthodox church, and three ordinary Greeks accused of planning to poison the city's water supply. [160] Hastings persuaded the Board of Control to invest in the revolutionary technology of the steamship, making the first use of a mechanised warship in a war. Our cowardly enemy is sick and weak. [104] Crete had a long history of resisting Turkish rule, exemplified by the folk hero Daskalogiannis, who was killed while fighting the Turks. The frigate responded with musket fire in retaliation and an Egyptian ship fired a cannon shot at the French flagship, the Sirene, which returned fire. 2 Padelis E. Lekas, "The Greek War of Independence from the Perspective of Historical Sociology," The Historical Review/La Revue Historique 2, (2006): 162. https://doi. The Greek War of Independence (1821-1829), also commonly known as the Greek Revolution was a successful war waged by the Greeks to win independence for Greece from the Ottoman Empire. The three countries' ambassadors also left Constantinople. An Arabic word meaning "flock" or "herd animal". An English explorer by the name of Carne spoke to the Archbishop before the events of 9 July, who was quoted as saying: "My death is not far away. [159] One of the British philhellenes, Frank Abney Hastings believed that the use of mechanised warships powered by steam and using red-hot shot would allow the Greeks to overpower the Ottoman navy, powered as it was by sail. Map shows territorial shifts in Ukraine since war began one year ago. Alexander Ypsilantis was one of the early heroes of the Greek War of Independence. In June 1821 the insurgents tried to cut communications between Thrace and the south, attempting to prevent the serasker Haji Muhammad Bayram Pasha from transferring forces from Asia Minor to southern Greece. Votes: 6 Christopher Nolan Independence (740 quotes) Back in Cyprus during the war, the local population suffered greatly at the hands of the Ottoman rulers of the islands, who were quick to act with great severity at any act of patriotism and sympathy of the Greeks of Cyprus to the Revolution, fearing a similar uprising in Cyprus. JNS.org - Joe Woolf, a South African Jewish volunteer in the foreign-fighters unit Machal who conducted research that helped preserve that group's legacy for 75 years after Israel's War of Independence, died on Feb. 28 at his home in the northern Israeli moshav of Ilaniya. Theodoridis, Georgios K. "A Modern State". [124] Reprisals and executions ensued, and women are reported to have flung themselves over the Arapitsa waterfall to avoid dishonor and being sold in slavery. After capturing some, they would give the poor creatures a certain distance to start ahead, hoping to escape, and then try the speed of their horses in overtaking them, the accuracy of their pistols in firing at them as they ran, or the keenness of their sabres' edge in cutting off their heads". The Assembly drafted the first Greek Constitution and appointed the members of an executive and a legislative body that were to govern the liberated territories. The Greeks were later assisted by the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, while the Ottomans were aided by their North African vassals . [5] In 1814, a secret organization called the Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by revolution, which was common in Europe at the time. In Thessaloniki, governor Yusuf Bey (the son of Ismail Bey) imprisoned in his headquarters more than 400 hostages, of whom more than 100 were monks from the monastic estates. Mavrogiannis Dionyssios, "Aspects of civic, economic and social life in Achaia and Moreas at the beginning of the revolutionary process of 1821. [196] The Anglo-Russian protocol that Wellington negotiated with Nicholas in St. Petersburg attracted much scorn from Metternich, who was consistently the most pro-Ottoman and anti-Greek European statesmen. The leader and coordinator of the revolution in Macedonia was Emmanouel Pappas from the village of Dobista, Serres, who was initiated into the Filiki Eteria in 1819. The Turks made themselves superior by minimizing the Greeks freedoms. The London Philhellenic Committee helped insurgent Greece to float two loans in 1824 (800,000) and 1825 (2,000,000). Sithonia, Mount Athos and Thasos subsequently surrendered on terms. Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 59. In August 1822, George Canning was appointed by the British government as Foreign Secretary, succeeding Castlereagh. . ai nante poi shite motto. Sfyroeras, Schoolbook for Triti Gymnasiou, 6th edition, Athens 1996, pp. [197] Before he met with Wellington, the Tsar had already sent an ultimatum to the Porte, demanding that the principalities be evacuated immediately, and that plenipotentiaries be sent to Russia to settle outstanding issues. [132], From October 1820 to July 1823 the Ottomans were at war with Persia, and in March 1823 a huge fire at the Tophana military arsenal in Constantinople destroyed much of the Ottoman state's supplies of ammunition and its main cannon foundry. A Queda de Constantinopla em 1453 e a subsequente queda de Trebizonda (Grego: Trapezous ou Trapezounda) e Mistra em 1461 marcaram o fim da soberania grega por praticamente quatro sculos. The Greeks rebelled the initial attach on the inn, which compelled the Ottomans to call for cannons to blow up the inn. Codrington promised that he would stop the Greeks and Philhellenes from attacking the Turks and Egyptians. Internal rivalries, however, prevented the Greeks from extending their control and from firmly consolidating their position in the Peloponnese. By the end of June, Ibrahim had captured the city of Argos and was within striking distance of Nafplion. [176] The American philhellene Samuel Gridley Howe, serving as a doctor with the Greeks, wrote back to America: "I write you with an almost breaking heart. [19], In times of militarily weak central authority, the Balkan countryside became infested by groups of bandits called "klephts" (Greek: ) (the Greek equivalent of the hajduks) that struck at Muslims and Christians alike. Codrington responded by saying that if Ibrahim's fleets attempted to go anywhere but home, he would have to destroy them. We were all plunged into great grief; for half an hour there was so complete a silence that no one would have thought there was a living soul present; each of us was revolving in his mind how great was our misfortune". Those who broke through the siege of Naousa fell back in Kozani, Siatista and Aspropotamos River, or were carried by the Psarian fleet to the northern Aegean islands.[125]. [25] As the armatoloi's position gradually turned into a hereditary one, some captains took care of their armatolik as their personal property. They would go out in parties of fifty to a hundred, mounted on fleet horses, and scour the open country in search of Greek peasantry, who might from necessity or hardihood have ventured down upon the plains. [b] Orthodox Christians were granted some political rights under Ottoman rule, but they were considered inferior subjects. [199] France, which initially backed its client Muhammad Ali the Great with weapons and officers to train his army, changed its stance, partly because of the pro-Greek feelings of the French people, and partly because King Charles X saw the offer to impose mediation as a way of assuring French influence in Greece. Just click the "Edit page" button at the bottom of the page or learn more in the Quotes submission guide. After his defeat and the successful retreat of Androutsos' force, Omer Vrioni postponed his advance towards Peloponnese awaiting reinforcements; instead, he invaded Livadeia, which he captured on 10 June, and Athens, where he lifted the siege of the Acropolis. 2021 marks the 200th anniversary of the Greek War of Independence and so provides a commemorative opportunity to again assess its nature and significance. [139], In July 1822, the Greeks and philhellenes at the Battle of Peta under Alexandros Mavrokordatos inflicted much punishment on an Ottoman army commanded by Omer Vrioni, but reflecting the chronic factionalism and disunity that characterized the Greek war effort, were undone when one of the Greek captains, Gogos Bakolas betrayed his own side to the Ottomans, allowing Albanian infantry to advance up the ridge. But in Whitehall, senior naval and diplomatic echelons were appalled by the outcome of his campaign. [20], Responding to the klephts' attacks, the Ottomans recruited the ablest amongst these groups, contracting Christian militias, known as "armatoloi" (Greek: ), to secure endangered areas, especially mountain passes. All Greek territory, except the Ionian Islands, came under Ottoman rule in the 15th century, in the decades surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. This led to a devastating Ottoman cavalry charge in the morning, with Ottomans hunting the scattered Greek forces almost at leisure. You may talk to me of national policy and the necessity of neutrality, but I say, a curse upon such a policy!". Be the first to contribute! He also wished to seize the powerful notables of Polygyros, who got wind of his intentions and fled. [31][32] Nevertheless, they seldom robbed common folk, from whose ranks they came from, and more often raided Turks, with whom they were separated by religion, nationality, and social class. [40] This Greek movement for independence was not only the first movement of national character in Eastern Europe, but also the first one in a non-Christian environment, like the Ottoman Empire. David Brewer has captured this period of world history brilliantly, from the ground up-the heroes and villains, the victories, and the tragic defeats. Despite victories at Samos and Gerontas, the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the Battle of Navarino in 1827. [145] Blaquiere further assisted the campaign by publishing two books in 1824, in which he claimed: "I should have no hesitation whatever in estimating the physical strength of regenerated Greece to be fully equal to the whole South American continent", concluding there was "no part of the worldwith a more productive soil or happier climate than GreeceOf all the countries or governments who have borrowed money in London within the last ten yearsGreece possesses the surest and most ample means of re-payment". The enlightened peoples of Europe are occupied in restoring the same well-being, and, full of gratitude for the benefactions of our forefathers towards them, desire the liberation of Greece. Nevertheless, Alexander's position was ambivalent, since he regarded himself as the protector of the Orthodox Church, and his subjects were deeply moved by the hanging of the Patriarch. Soon afterward, Britain and France conceived the idea of an independent Greek state, trying to limit the influence of Russia on the new state. [70] Also, some European newspapers of June and July 1821 published the news of declaration of revolution by Germanos either in Patras on 6 April/25 March 1821[71] or in the "Monastery of Velia Mountain" (Agia Lavra) on a non-specified date. Negotiations temporarily stalled after Kapodistrias was assassinated in 1831 in Nafplion by the Mavromichalis clan, after having demanded that they unconditionally submit to his authority. In May1832, Palmerston convened the London Conference. Missolonghi revolted on 25 May, and the revolution soon spread to other cities of western Central Greece. They in some cases used Albanian with each other to prevent others on their side from reading their correspondence. The insurrection was planned for 25 March 1821 (in the Julian Calendar), the Orthodox Christian Feast of the Annunciation. [107] He then gathered 3,000 men in Gergeri to face Hussein, but the Cretans were defeated by the much larger and better-organised force, and lost 300 men at the battle of Amourgelles on 20 August 1823. In the face of this situation, the Greeks decided to use fire ships (Greek: or ), which had proven themselves effective for the Psarians during the Orlov Revolt in 1770. He was 94 years old. In Boeotia, Livadeia was captured by Athanasios Diakos on 31 March, followed by Thebes two days later. [228], The consequences of the Greek revolution were somewhat ambiguous in the immediate aftermath. [81] In Constantinople, on Easter Sunday, the Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, Gregory V, was publicly hanged although he had condemned the revolution and preached obedience to the Sultan in his sermons. [119], The insurrection in Chalkidiki was, from then on, confined to the peninsulas of Mount Athos and Kassandra. As a result of the Russian reaction to Alexander Ypsilantis, Kapodistrias resigned as foreign minister and moved to Switzerland.[192]. The time has come, O Hellenes. 327331. On 13 October, Codrington was joined, off Navarino, by his allied support, a French squadron under De Rigny and a Russian squadron under Login Geiden. 1. A prominent Greek patriot in the War of Greek Independence (1821-30). [170] In turn, the British Foreign Secretary George Canning wrote, rather than run the risk of Russia defeating the Ottomans alone, Britain would have to intervene to stop the "barbarisation project" as the British did not wish to see the Russians conquer the Ottoman Empire. Metternich persuaded Alexander that Kapodistrias was in league with the Italian Carbonari (an Italian revolutionary group), leading Alexander to disavow him. In January 1825, a Roumeliote force, led by Kolettis himself, arrested Kolokotronis, Deligiannis' family and others. Decent Essays. They were later dissolved by the Second National Assembly. The Russo-Turkish wars of Catherine II (17621796) made the Greeks consider their emancipation with the aid of Russia. [187], Kapodistrias arrived in Greece to become the Governor on 28 January 1828. [103], Cretan participation in the revolution was extensive, but it failed to achieve liberation from Turkish rule because of Egyptian intervention. [213] Russia disliked the idea but could not reject it, and consequently the three powers finally agreed to create an independent Greek state under their joint protection, concluding the protocols of 3 February 1830. 16, University of North Florida, " ", "Greek Auditors in the Courses of Jean Lamarck", The Greek Revolution: 1821 and the Making of Modern Europe, The Question of Greek Independence: A Study of British Policy in the Near East, 18211833, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greek_War_of_Independence&oldid=1142325284, "Today the fatherland is reborn, that for so long was lost and extinguished. [182] To break the siege, an attack was launched on Reshid Pasha on 18 August 1826 led by the guerrilla leader Georgios Karaiskakis and the French philhellene Colonel Charles Nicolas Fabvier but were driven off with the loss of some 300 dead. [56], These measures led to the increase of British influence. The Cypriot battalion brought with them their own distinctive war banner, consisting of a white flag with a large blue cross, and the words GREEK FLAG OF THE MOTHERLAND CYPRUS emblazoned in the top left corner. Archbishop Kyprianos was defiant in his death. @MANSCAPED is the perfect gift for Father's Day! A letter of Lord Byron seeking the release of a boatful of Greeks captured off Patras, dated March 2, 1824, a month and a half before his death. Athena was telling them to fall in love. Login The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution, was a successful war of independence waged by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. To this day, many songs are sung by Greeks worldwide on 25 March to celebrate their liberation and showcase their respect for the lives that were lost during the four hundred years of Ottoman rule. [17], At the same time, a number of Greeks enjoyed a privileged position in the Ottoman state as members of the Ottoman bureaucracy. [87] Between the summer of 1821 and end of 1822, when the French started to inspect ships leaving Marseilles for philhellenes, some 360 volunteers travelled to Greece. Outmatched American troops often retreated, but returned to fight again, frustrating British efforts to crush the rebellion. At the same time, conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like Andreas Miaoulis distinguished themselves. Flag used by Greek guerillas (1821-1829) Greek guerilla flag - Image by Eugene Ipavec, 24 November 2009. The total Ottoman fleet size consisted of 20 three-masted ships of the line, each with about 80 guns and 7 or 8 frigates with 50 guns, 5 corvettes with about 30 guns and around 40 brigs with 20 or fewer guns,[130] complemented by squadrons from the Maghrebi vassal states (Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis) and Egypt.[131]. [f] In 1821, the Ottoman Empire mainly faced war against Persia and more particularly the revolt by Ali Pasha in Epirus, which had forced the vali (governor) of the Morea, Hursid Pasha, and other local pashas to leave their provinces and campaign against the rebel force. He is best known for being decapitated and thereafter providing wisdom to the chief of the gods, Odin. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia allowing for the Russian army to move into the Balkans, near Constantinople. [203], However, when Frank Hastings, a Philhellene, destroyed a Turkish naval squadron during a raid off Itea, Ibrahim sent a detachment of his fleet out of Navarino in order to defeat Hastings. Influenced by the Italian Carbonari and profiting from their own experience as members of Freemasonic organizations, they founded in 1814 the secret Filiki Eteria ("Friendly Society") in Odessa, an important center of the Greek mercantile diaspora in Russia. 5 quotes [184] On 31 March 1827 the Trizina Assembly began its work, drafting a new constitution and offered the presidency of Greece to the former Russian foreign minister, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias. Favouring the formation of an autonomous Greek state, they offered to mediate between the Turks and the Greeks (1826 and 1827). Maison thus implemented the convention Codrington had negotiated and signed in Alexandria with Muhammad Ali, which provided for the withdrawal of all Egyptian troops from the Peloponnese. Perspectives on Comparative Approaches to the Revolutions in Spain, Italy, and Greece in the 1820s.". render back from out thy breast In October 1828, the Greeks regrouped and formed a new government under Kapodistrias. Among them was De Rigny, who had an argument with Makriyannis and advised him to quit his weak position but Makriyannis ignored him. The Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, which were a British colony, was ordered to consider the Greeks in a state of war and give them the right to cut off certain areas from which the Turks could get provisions. Many of his poems urged the people of Greece to leave the cities, head to the mountains where they would have more freedom, and unite to gain their independence. [28] Contrary to conventional Greek history, many of the klephts and armatoles participated at the Greek War of Independence according to their own militaristic patron-client terms. In a televised message, United States President Joe Biden said the relationship between Greece and the US would be closer than ever. More about Greek Contributions Dbq Essay. The British public, many of them Philhellenes, were overjoyed at the outcome of the battle which all but confirmed the independence of Greece. While in Paris he was a witness to the French Revolution and saw the democracy that came out of it. After the crushing of the uprising, Muslim Albanians ravaged many regions in mainland Greece. The flag was hoisted on a wooden mast, carved and pointed at the end to act as a lance in battle. Kanaris brought with him to mainland Greece, Cypriots who created the "Column of Cypriots" ( ), led by General Chatzipetros, which fought with extraordinary heroism in Greece. It is difficult sometimes to remember details about places and historic figures involved, especially when so many things took place during the decade long course of the Greek . Kyprianos chose to stay, despite these fears, and provide protection and counsel for the people of Cyprus as their leader. The entanglement of ethnic and linguistic communities, the protection of the Great Powers commercial interests and the political and sometimes armed conflicts between the Greeks themselves all contributed to the chaotic course of events and continued to plague attempts to form a national government well after the significant fighting had ceased. [73] In Achaia, the town of Kalavryta was besieged on 21 March, and in Patras conflicts lasted for many days. In the fire ships, the Greeks found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels. [208] The French troops definitely left Greece after five years, in 1833. This was achieved through the dissemination of books, pamphlets and other writings in Greek, in a process that has been described as the modern Greek Enlightenment (Greek: ). An operation which launched on 5 May 1827 ended in disaster, as the Greek forces got lost and scattered as the captains quarrelled with one another. Plagued by internal strife and financial difficulties in keeping the fleet in constant readiness, the Greeks failed to prevent the capture and destruction of Kasos and Psara in 1824, or the landing of the Egyptian army at Methoni. Shortly after the war ended, the people of the Russian-dependent Poland, encouraged by the Greek victory, started the November Uprising, hoping to regain their independence. Revolutionary activity was fragmented because of the lack of strong central leadership and guidance. 28 March]. Kolokotronis refused, and the Assembly was finally gathered in March 1823 in Astros. For the first time, a Christian subject people had achieved independence from Ottoman rule and established a fully independent state, recognized by Europe. When Muhammad Ali's fleet, which had been warned by the British and French to stay away from Greece, left Alexandria and joined other Ottoman/Egyptian units at Navarino on 8 September, Codrington arrived with his squadron off Navarino on 12 September. The three major social groups that provided the leadership of the revolution were the primates (wealthy landowners who controlled about a third of the arable land in the Peloponnese), the captains drawn from the klephts and/or armatolos (klepts and armatolos tended to alternate), and the wealthy merchants, who were the most Westernised elements in Greek society. However, Pappas died en route to join the revolution at Hydra. [227] A large number of Christian clergymen were also killed, including the Ecumenical Patriarch Gregory V.[i], Sometimes marked as allies of the Turks in the Peloponnese, Jewish settlements were also massacred by Greek revolutionaries; Steve Bowman argues that the tragedy may have been more a side-effect of the butchering of the Turks of Tripolis, the last Ottoman stronghold in the South, where the Jews had taken refuge from the fighting, than a specific action against Jews as such. The revolution is celebrated by Greeks around the world as independence day on 25 March every year. [85] After the execution of the Patriarch Gregory V, the Russian Emperor Alexander I broke off diplomatic relations with the Sublime Porte after his foreign minister Count Ioannis Kapodistrias sent an ultimatum demanding promises from the Ottomans to stop executing Orthodox priests, which the Porte did not see fit to answer. All these were loosely besieged by local irregular forces under their own captains, since the Greeks lacked artillery. [197] Prussia, whose king Frederich Wilhelm was close to Metternich, chose to follow the Austrian lead. [181] In late June 1826, Reshid Pasha had arrived outside of Athens and laid siege to the city, marking the beginning of the siege of the Acropolis. 5 October],[75] and the city was given over to the mob for two days. The poem itself is 158 stanzas, but officially only the first two are the anthem. Alexander Ypsilantis, accompanied by his brother Nicholas and a remnant of his followers, retreated to Rmnicu Vlcea, where he spent some days negotiating with the Austrian authorities for permission to cross the frontier. When they failed to counter the Ottoman Navy, it was able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the Ottoman Empire's provinces, threatening to crush the rebellion; likewise the failure of the Greek fleet to break the naval blockade of Messolonghi (as it did several times earlier) in 1826 led to the fall of the city. The Turks attempted three times (182224) to invade the Peloponnese but were unable to retrieve the area. few years later, the revolutionary fervour of the southern Greeks was to spread to these parts, and the seeds of Filiki Eteria were speedily to take root. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. The Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 and the subsequent fall of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire marked the end of Byzantine sovereignty. The Greeks expected Church to prove a Wellington, with a military chest well supplied from the British treasury. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). The religious leader of the Greeks of the island at the time, Archbishop Kyprianos was initiated into the Filiki Etairia in 1818 and had promised to aid the cause of the Greek Helladites with food and money. Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. Papaflessas and Makriyannis failed to suppress the rebellion, but Kolokotronis remained inactive for some period, overwhelmed by the death of his son, Panos. In Bucharest, the relations of the two men deteriorated dramatically; Vladimirescu's first priority was to assert his authority against the newly appointed prince Scarlat Callimachi, trying to maintain relations with both Russia and the Ottomans. 5372. These Greek victories were proved decisive for the including of more territories in the future State. Codrington had not heard of Hastings's actions and thought that Ibrahim was breaking his agreement. In 1828, the Egyptian army withdrew under pressure from a French expeditionary force. It is the national anthem not only of Greece but also of Cyprus, which adopted it in 1966. [190] As a former Russian foreign minister, Kapodistrias was well connected to the European elite and he attempted to use his connections to secure loans for the new Greek state and to achieve the most favorable borders for Greece, which was being debated by Russian, French and British diplomats.[191]. He was publicly hanged from a tree opposite the former palace of the Lusignan Kings of Cyprus on 19 July 1821. For, standing on the Persians' grave, Archbishop Kyprianos was urged (by his friends) to leave the island as the situation worsened, but refused to do so. tsumi mo uso mo datsuhou mo chuu ni matte ita. Praised be your most virtuous name, omnipotent and most merciful Lord.". Photo: Everett Collection. "Today the fatherland is reborn, that for so long was lost and extinguished. The Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. There is debate among scholars over whether the massacres committed by the Greeks should be regarded as a response to prior events (such as the massacre of the Greeks of Tripoli, after the failed Orlov Revolt of 1770 and the destruction of the Sacred Band[224]) or as separate atrocities, which started simultaneously with the outbreak of the revolt. They landed at Asprovrisi of Lapithou. After a second civil war (1824), Kountouritis was firmly established as leader, but his government and the entire revolution were gravely threatened by the arrival of Egyptian forces, led by Ibrahim Pasha, which had been sent to aid the Turks (1825). Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and brought most of the peninsula under Egyptian control by the end of that year. Omissions? [211] Based on the Protocol of Poros, the London Conference agreed on the protocol of 22 March 1829, which accepted most of the ambassadors' proposals but drew the borders farther south than the initial proposal and did not include Samos and Crete in the new state. Mehmed Emin then appeared before the town with 10,000 regular troops and 10,600 irregulars. [164] The Greeks initially laughed at the Egyptian soldiers, who were short, skinny falln (peasant) conscripts, many of them blind in one eye owing to the prevalence of parasitic worms that attacked the eye in the Nile, wearing cheap red uniforms comprising a jacket, trousers and a skull-cap.